ChaptersIf you're used to using raw SQL to find database records, then you will generally find that there are better ways to carry out the same operations in Rails. Active Record insulates you from the need to use SQL in most cases.
Code examples throughout this guide will refer to one or more of the following models:
All of the following models use id as the primary key, unless specified otherwise.
class Client < ApplicationRecord has_one :address has_many :orders has_and_belongs_to_many :roles end
class Address < ApplicationRecord belongs_to :client end
class Order < ApplicationRecord belongs_to :client, counter_cache: true end
class Role < ApplicationRecord has_and_belongs_to_many :clients end
Active Record will perform queries on the database for you and is compatible with most database systems, including MySQL, MariaDB, PostgreSQL, and SQLite. Regardless of which database system you're using, the Active Record method format will always be the same.
1 Retrieving Objects from the Database
To retrieve objects from the database, Active Record provides several finder methods. Each finder method allows you to pass arguments into it to perform certain queries on your database without writing raw SQL.
The methods are:
findcreate_withdistincteager_loadextendingfromgrouphavingincludesjoinsleft_outer_joinslimitlocknoneoffsetorderpreloadreadonlyreferencesreorderreverse_orderselectwhere
Finder methods that return a collection, such as where and group, return an instance of ActiveRecord::Relation. Methods that find a single entity, such as find and first, return a single instance of the model.
The primary operation of Model.find(options) can be summarized as:
- Convert the supplied options to an equivalent SQL query.
- Fire the SQL query and retrieve the corresponding results from the database.
- Instantiate the equivalent Ruby object of the appropriate model for every resulting row.
- Run
after_findand thenafter_initializecallbacks, if any.
1.1 Retrieving a Single Object
Active Record provides several different ways of retrieving a single object.
1.1.1 find
Using the find method, you can retrieve the object corresponding to the specified primary key that matches any supplied options. For example:
# Find the client with primary key (id) 10. client = Client.find(10) # => #<Client id: 10, first_name: "Ryan">
The SQL equivalent of the above is:
SELECT * FROM clients WHERE (clients.id = 10) LIMIT 1
The find method will raise an ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound exception if no matching record is found.
You can also use this method to query for multiple objects. Call the find method and pass in an array of primary keys. The return will be an array containing all of the matching records for the supplied primary keys. For example:
# Find the clients with primary keys 1 and 10. clients = Client.find([1, 10]) # Or even Client.find(1, 10) # => [#<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lifo">, #<Client id: 10, first_name: "Ryan">]
The SQL equivalent of the above is:
SELECT * FROM clients WHERE (clients.id IN (1,10))
The find method will raise an ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound exception unless a matching record is found for all of the supplied primary keys.
1.1.2 take
The take method retrieves a record without any implicit ordering. For example:
client = Client.take # => #<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lifo">
The SQL equivalent of the above is:
SELECT * FROM clients LIMIT 1
The take method returns nil if no record is found and no exception will be raised.
You can pass in a numerical argument to the take method to return up to that number of results. For example
clients = Client.take(2) # => [ # #<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lifo">, # #<Client id: 220, first_name: "Sara"> # ]
The SQL equivalent of the above is:
SELECT * FROM clients LIMIT 2
The take! method behaves exactly like take, except that it will raise ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound if no matching record is found.
The retrieved record may vary depending on the database engine.
1.1.3 first
The first method finds the first record ordered by primary key (default). For example:
client = Client.first # => #<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lifo">
The SQL equivalent of the above is:
SELECT * FROM clients ORDER BY clients.id ASC LIMIT 1
The first method returns nil if no matching record is found and no exception will be raised.
If your default scope contains an order method, first will return the first record according to this ordering.
You can pass in a numerical argument to the first method to return up to that number of results. For example
clients = Client.first(3) # => [ # #<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lifo">, # #<Client id: 2, first_name: "Fifo">, # #<Client id: 3, first_name: "Filo"> # ]
The SQL equivalent of the above is:
SELECT * FROM clients ORDER BY clients.id ASC LIMIT 3
On a collection that is ordered using order, first will return the first record ordered by the specified attribute for order.
client = Client.order(:first_name).first # => #<Client id: 2, first_name: "Fifo">
The SQL equivalent of the above is:
SELECT * FROM clients ORDER BY clients.first_name ASC LIMIT 1
The first! method behaves exactly like first, except that it will raise ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound if no matching record is found.
1.1.4 last
The last method finds the last record ordered by primary key (default). For example:
client = Client.last # => #<Client id: 221, first_name: "Russel">
The SQL equivalent of the above is:
SELECT * FROM clients ORDER BY clients.id DESC LIMIT 1
The last method returns nil if no matching record is found and no exception will be raised.
If your default scope contains an order method, last will return the last record according to this ordering.
You can pass in a numerical argument to the last method to return up to that number of results. For example
clients = Client.last(3) # => [ # #<Client id: 219, first_name: "James">, # #<Client id: 220, first_name: "Sara">, # #<Client id: 221, first_name: "Russel"> # ]
The SQL equivalent of the above is:
SELECT * FROM clients ORDER BY clients.id DESC LIMIT 3
On a collection that is ordered using order, last will return the last record ordered by the specified attribute for order.
client = Client.order(:first_name).last # => #<Client id: 220, first_name: "Sara">
The SQL equivalent of the above is:
SELECT * FROM clients ORDER BY clients.first_name DESC LIMIT 1
The last! method behaves exactly like last, except that it will raise ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound if no matching record is found.
1.1.5 find_by
The find_by method finds the first record matching some conditions. For example:
Client.find_by first_name: 'Lifo' # => #<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lifo"> Client.find_by first_name: 'Jon' # => nil
It is equivalent to writing:
Client.where(first_name: 'Lifo').take
The SQL equivalent of the above is:
SELECT * FROM clients WHERE (clients.first_name = 'Lifo') LIMIT 1
The find_by! method behaves exactly like find_by, except that it will raise ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound if no matching record is found. For example:
Client.find_by! first_name: 'does not exist' # => ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound
This is equivalent to writing:
Client.where(first_name: 'does not exist').take!
1.2 Retrieving Multiple Objects in Batches
We often need to iterate over a large set of records, as when we send a newsletter to a large set of users, or when we export data.
This may appear straightforward:
# This may consume too much memory if the table is big. User.all.each do |user| NewsMailer.weekly(user).deliver_now end
But this approach becomes increasingly impractical as the table size increases, since User.all.each instructs Active Record to fetch the entire table in a single pass, build a model object per row, and then keep the entire array of model objects in memory. Indeed, if we have a large number of records, the entire collection may exceed the amount of memory available.
Rails provides two methods that address this problem by dividing records into memory-friendly batches for processing. The first method, find_each, retrieves a batch of records and then yields each record to the block individually as a model. The second method, find_in_batches, retrieves a batch of records and then yields the entire batch to the block as an array of models.
The find_each and find_in_batches methods are intended for use in the batch processing of a large number of records that wouldn't fit in memory all at once. If you just need to loop over a thousand records the regular find methods are the preferred option.
1.2.1 find_each
The find_each method retrieves records in batches and then yields each one to the block. In the following example, find_each retrieves users in batches of 1000 and yields them to the block one by one:
User.find_each do |user| NewsMailer.weekly(user).deliver_now end
This process is repeated, fetching more batches as needed, until all of the records have been processed.
find_each works on model classes, as seen above, and also on relations:
User.where(weekly_subscriber: true).find_each do |user| NewsMailer.weekly(user).deliver_now end
as long as they have no ordering, since the method needs to force an order internally to iterate.
If an order is present in the receiver the behaviour depends on the flag
config.active_record.error_on_ignored_order. If true, ArgumentError is
raised, otherwise the order is ignored and a warning issued, which is the
default. This can be overridden with the option :error_on_ignore, explained
below.
1.2.1.1 Options for find_each
:batch_size
The :batch_size option allows you to specify the number of records to be retrieved in each batch, before being passed individually to the block. For example, to retrieve records in batches of 5000:
User.find_each(batch_size: 5000) do |user| NewsMailer.weekly(user).deliver_now end
:start
By default, records are fetched in ascending order of the primary key, which must be an integer. The :start option allows you to configure the first ID of the sequence whenever the lowest ID is not the one you need. This would be useful, for example, if you wanted to resume an interrupted batch process, provided you saved the last processed ID as a checkpoint.
For example, to send newsletters only to users with the primary key starting from 2000:
User.find_each(start: 2000) do |user| NewsMailer.weekly(user).deliver_now end
:finish
Similar to the :start option, :finish allows you to configure the last ID of the sequence whenever the highest ID is not the one you need.
This would be useful, for example, if you wanted to run a batch process using a subset of records based on :start and :finish.
For example, to send newsletters only to users with the primary key starting from 2000 up to 10000:
User.find_each(start: 2000, finish: 10000) do |user| NewsMailer.weekly(user).deliver_now end
Another example would be if you wanted multiple workers handling the same
processing queue. You could have each worker handle 10000 records by setting the
appropriate :start and :finish options on each worker.
:error_on_ignore
Overrides the application config to specify if an error should be raised when an order is present in the relation.
1.2.2 find_in_batches
The find_in_batches method is similar to find_each, since both retrieve batches of records. The difference is that find_in_batches yields batches to the block as an array of models, instead of individually. The following example will yield to the supplied block an array of up to 1000 invoices at a time, with the final block containing any remaining invoices:
# Give add_invoices an array of 1000 invoices at a time. Invoice.find_in_batches do |invoices| export.add_invoices(invoices) end
find_in_batches works on model classes, as seen above, and also on relations:
Invoice.pending.find_in_batches do |invoices| pending_invoices_export.add_invoices(invoices) end
as long as they have no ordering, since the method needs to force an order internally to iterate.
1.2.2.1 Options for find_in_batches
The find_in_batches method accepts the same options as find_each.
2 Conditions
The where method allows you to specify conditions to limit the records returned, representing the WHERE-part of the SQL statement. Conditions can either be specified as a string, array, or hash.
2.1 Pure String Conditions
If you'd like to add conditions to your find, you could just specify them in there, just like Client.where("orders_count = '2'"). This will find all clients where the orders_count field's value is 2.
Building your own conditions as pure strings can leave you vulnerable to SQL injection exploits. For example, Client.where("first_name LIKE '%#{params[:first_name]}%'") is not safe. See the next section for the preferred way to handle conditions using an array.
2.2 Array Conditions
Now what if that number could vary, say as an argument from somewhere? The find would then take the form:
Client.where("orders_count = ?", params[:orders])
Active Record will take the first argument as the conditions string and any additional arguments will replace the question marks (?) in it.
If you want to specify multiple conditions:
Client.where("orders_count = ? AND locked = ?", params[:orders], false)
In this example, the first question mark will be replaced with the value in params[:orders] and the second will be replaced with the SQL representation of false, which depends on the adapter.
This code is highly preferable:
Client.where("orders_count = ?", params[:orders])
to this code:
Client.where("orders_count = #{params[:orders]}")
because of argument safety. Putting the variable directly into the conditions string will pass the variable to the database as-is. This means that it will be an unescaped variable directly from a user who may have malicious intent. If you do this, you put your entire database at risk because once a user finds out they can exploit your database they can do just about anything to it. Never ever put your arguments directly inside the conditions string.
For more information on the dangers of SQL injection, see the Ruby on Rails Security Guide.
2.2.1 Placeholder Conditions
Similar to the (?) replacement style of params, you can also specify keys in your conditions string along with a corresponding keys/values hash:
Client.where("created_at >= :start_date AND created_at <= :end_date",
{start_date: params[:start_date], end_date: params[:end_date]})
This makes for clearer readability if you have a large number of variable conditions.
2.3 Hash Conditions
Active Record also allows you to pass in hash conditions which can increase the readability of your conditions syntax. With hash conditions, you pass in a hash with keys of the fields you want qualified and the values of how you want to qualify them:
Only equality, range and subset checking are possible with Hash conditions.
2.3.1 Equality Conditions
Client.where(locked: true)
This will generate SQL like this:
SELECT * FROM clients WHERE (clients.locked = 1)
The field name can also be a string:
Client.where('locked' => true)
In the case of a belongs_to relationship, an association key can be used to specify the model if an Active Record object is used as the value. This method works with polymorphic relationships as well.
Article.where(author: author)
Author.joins(:articles).where(articles: { author: author })
2.3.2 Range Conditions
Client.where(created_at: (Time.now.midnight - 1.day)..Time.now.midnight)
This will find all clients created yesterday by using a BETWEEN SQL statement:
SELECT * FROM clients WHERE (clients.created_at BETWEEN '2008-12-21 00:00:00' AND '2008-12-22 00:00:00')
This demonstrates a shorter syntax for the examples in Array Conditions
2.3.3 Subset Conditions
If you want to find records using the IN expression you can pass an array to the conditions hash:
Client.where(orders_count: [1,3,5])
This code will generate SQL like this:
SELECT * FROM clients WHERE (clients.orders_count IN (1,3,5))
2.4 NOT Conditions
NOT SQL queries can be built by where.not:
Client.where.not(locked: true)
In other words, this query can be generated by calling where with no argument, then immediately chain with not passing where conditions. This will generate SQL like this:
SELECT * FROM clients WHERE (clients.locked != 1)
2.5 OR Conditions
OR conditions between two relations can be built by calling or on the first
relation, and passing the second one as an argument.
Client.where(locked: true).or(Client.where(orders_count: [1,3,5]))
SELECT * FROM clients WHERE (clients.locked = 1 OR clients.orders_count IN (1,3,5))
3 Ordering
To retrieve records from the database in a specific order, you can use the order method.
For example, if you're getting a set of records and want to order them in ascending order by the created_at field in your table:
Client.order(:created_at)
# OR
Client.order("created_at")
You could specify ASC or DESC as well:
Client.order(created_at: :desc)
# OR
Client.order(created_at: :asc)
# OR
Client.order("created_at DESC")
# OR
Client.order("created_at ASC")
Or ordering by multiple fields:
Client.order(orders_count: :asc, created_at: :desc)
# OR
Client.order(:orders_count, created_at: :desc)
# OR
Client.order("orders_count ASC, created_at DESC")
# OR
Client.order("orders_count ASC", "created_at DESC")
If you want to call order multiple times, subsequent orders will be appended to the first:
Client.order("orders_count ASC").order("created_at DESC")
# SELECT * FROM clients ORDER BY orders_count ASC, created_at DESC
If you are using MySQL 5.7.5 and above, then on selecting fields from a result set using methods like select, pluck and ids; the order method will raise an ActiveRecord::StatementInvalid exception unless the field(s) used in order clause are included in the select list. See the next section for selecting fields from the result set.
4 Selecting Specific Fields
By default, Model.find selects all the fields from the result set using select *.
To select only a subset of fields from the result set, you can specify the subset via the select method.
For example, to select only viewable_by and locked columns:
Client.select("viewable_by, locked")
The SQL query used by this find call will be somewhat like:
SELECT viewable_by, locked FROM clients
Be careful because this also means you're initializing a model object with only the fields that you've selected. If you attempt to access a field that is not in the initialized record you'll receive:
ActiveModel::MissingAttributeError: missing attribute: <attribute>
Where <attribute> is the attribute you asked for. The id method will not raise the ActiveRecord::MissingAttributeError, so just be careful when working with associations because they need the id method to function properly.
If you would like to only grab a single record per unique value in a certain field, you can use distinct:
Client.select(:name).distinct
This would generate SQL like:
SELECT DISTINCT name FROM clients
You can also remove the uniqueness constraint:
query = Client.select(:name).distinct # => Returns unique names query.distinct(false) # => Returns all names, even if there are duplicates
5 Limit and Offset
To apply LIMIT to the SQL fired by the Model.find, you can specify the LIMIT using limit and offset methods on the relation.
You can use limit to specify the number of records to be retrieved, and use offset to specify the number of records to skip before starting to return the records. For example
Client.limit(5)
will return a maximum of 5 clients and because it specifies no offset it will return the first 5 in the table. The SQL it executes looks like this:
SELECT * FROM clients LIMIT 5
Adding offset to that
Client.limit(5).offset(30)
will return instead a maximum of 5 clients beginning with the 31st. The SQL looks like:
SELECT * FROM clients LIMIT 5 OFFSET 30
6 Group
To apply a GROUP BY clause to the SQL fired by the finder, you can use the group method.
For example, if you want to find a collection of the dates on which orders were created:
Order.select("date(created_at) as ordered_date, sum(price) as total_price").group("date(created_at)")
And this will give you a single Order object for each date where there are orders in the database.
The SQL that would be executed would be something like this:
SELECT date(created_at) as ordered_date, sum(price) as total_price FROM orders GROUP BY date(created_at)
6.1 Total of grouped items
To get the total of grouped items on a single query, call count after the group.
Order.group(:status).count
# => { 'awaiting_approval' => 7, 'paid' => 12 }
The SQL that would be executed would be something like this:
SELECT COUNT (*) AS count_all, status AS status FROM "orders" GROUP BY status
7 Having
SQL uses the HAVING clause to specify conditions on the GROUP BY fields. You can add the HAVING clause to the SQL fired by the Model.find by adding the having method to the find.
For example:
Order.select("date(created_at) as ordered_date, sum(price) as total_price").
group("date(created_at)").having("sum(price) > ?", 100)
The SQL that would be executed would be something like this:
SELECT date(created_at) as ordered_date, sum(price) as total_price FROM orders GROUP BY date(created_at) HAVING sum(price) > 100
This returns the date and total price for each order object, grouped by the day they were ordered and where the price is more than $100.
8 Overriding Conditions
8.1 unscope
You can specify certain conditions to be removed using the unscope method. For example:
Article.where('id > 10').limit(20).order('id asc').unscope(:order)
The SQL that would be executed:
SELECT * FROM articles WHERE id > 10 LIMIT 20 # Original query without `unscope` SELECT * FROM articles WHERE id > 10 ORDER BY id asc LIMIT 20
You can also unscope specific where clauses. For example:
Article.where(id: 10, trashed: false).unscope(where: :id) # SELECT "articles".* FROM "articles" WHERE trashed = 0
A relation which has used unscope will affect any relation into which it is merged:
Article.order('id asc').merge(Article.unscope(:order))
# SELECT "articles".* FROM "articles"
8.2 only
You can also override conditions using the only method. For example:
Article.where('id > 10').limit(20).order('id desc').only(:order, :where)
The SQL that would be executed:
SELECT * FROM articles WHERE id > 10 ORDER BY id DESC # Original query without `only` SELECT * FROM articles WHERE id > 10 ORDER BY id DESC LIMIT 20
8.3 reorder
The reorder method overrides the default scope order. For example:
class Article < ApplicationRecord
has_many :comments, -> { order('posted_at DESC') }
end
Article.find(10).comments.reorder('name')
The SQL that would be executed:
SELECT * FROM articles WHERE id = 10 LIMIT 1 SELECT * FROM comments WHERE article_id = 10 ORDER BY name
In the case where the reorder clause is not used, the SQL executed would be:
SELECT * FROM articles WHERE id = 10 LIMIT 1 SELECT * FROM comments WHERE article_id = 10 ORDER BY posted_at DESC
8.4 reverse_order
The reverse_order method reverses the ordering clause if specified.
Client.where("orders_count > 10").order(:name).reverse_order
The SQL that would be executed:
SELECT * FROM clients WHERE orders_count > 10 ORDER BY name DESC
If no ordering clause is specified in the query, the reverse_order orders by the primary key in reverse order.
Client.where("orders_count > 10").reverse_order
The SQL that would be executed:
SELECT * FROM clients WHERE orders_count > 10 ORDER BY clients.id DESC
This method accepts no arguments.
8.5 rewhere
The rewhere method overrides an existing, named where condition. For example:
Article.where(trashed: true).rewhere(trashed: false)
The SQL that would be executed:
SELECT * FROM articles WHERE `trashed` = 0
In case the rewhere clause is not used,
Article.where(trashed: true).where(trashed: false)
the SQL executed would be:
SELECT * FROM articles WHERE `trashed` = 1 AND `trashed` = 0
9 Null Relation
The none method returns a chainable relation with no records. Any subsequent conditions chained to the returned relation will continue generating empty relations. This is useful in scenarios where you need a chainable response to a method or a scope that could return zero results.
Article.none # returns an empty Relation and fires no queries.
# The visible_articles method below is expected to return a Relation.
@articles = current_user.visible_articles.where(name: params[:name])
def visible_articles
case role
when 'Country Manager'
Article.where(country: country)
when 'Reviewer'
Article.published
when 'Bad User'
Article.none # => returning [] or nil breaks the caller code in this case
end
end
10 Readonly Objects
Active Record provides the readonly method on a relation to explicitly disallow modification of any of the returned objects. Any attempt to alter a readonly record will not succeed, raising an ActiveRecord::ReadOnlyRecord exception.
client = Client.readonly.first client.visits += 1 client.save
As client is explicitly set to be a readonly object, the above code will raise an ActiveRecord::ReadOnlyRecord exception when calling client.save with an updated value of visits.
11 Locking Records for Update
Locking is helpful for preventing race conditions when updating records in the database and ensuring atomic updates.
Active Record provides two locking mechanisms:
- Optimistic Locking
- Pessimistic Locking
11.1 Optimistic Locking
Optimistic locking allows multiple users to access the same record for edits, and assumes a minimum of conflicts with the data. It does this by checking whether another process has made changes to a record since it was opened. An ActiveRecord::StaleObjectError exception is thrown if that has occurred and the update is ignored.
Optimistic locking column
In order to use optimistic locking, the table needs to have a column called lock_version of type integer. Each time the record is updated, Active Record increments the lock_version column. If an update request is made with a lower value in the lock_version field than is currently in the lock_version column in the database, the update request will fail with an ActiveRecord::StaleObjectError. Example:
c1 = Client.find(1) c2 = Client.find(1) c1.first_name = "Michael" c1.save c2.name = "should fail" c2.save # Raises an ActiveRecord::StaleObjectError
You're then responsible for dealing with the conflict by rescuing the exception and either rolling back, merging, or otherwise apply the business logic needed to resolve the conflict.
This behavior can be turned off by setting ActiveRecord::Base.lock_optimistically = false.
To override the name of the lock_version column, ActiveRecord::Base provides a class attribute called locking_column:
class Client < ApplicationRecord self.locking_column = :lock_client_column end
11.2 Pessimistic Locking
Pessimistic locking uses a locking mechanism provided by the underlying database. Using lock when building a relation obtains an exclusive lock on the selected rows. Relations using lock are usually wrapped inside a transaction for preventing deadlock conditions.
For example:
Item.transaction do i = Item.lock.first i.name = 'Jones' i.save! end
The above session produces the following SQL for a MySQL backend:
SQL (0.2ms) BEGIN Item Load (0.3ms) SELECT * FROM `items` LIMIT 1 FOR UPDATE Item Update (0.4ms) UPDATE `items` SET `updated_at` = '2009-02-07 18:05:56', `name` = 'Jones' WHERE `id` = 1 SQL (0.8ms) COMMIT
You can also pass raw SQL to the lock method for allowing different types of locks. For example, MySQL has an expression called LOCK IN SHARE MODE where you can lock a record but still allow other queries to read it. To specify this expression just pass it in as the lock option:
Item.transaction do
i = Item.lock("LOCK IN SHARE MODE").find(1)
i.increment!(:views)
end
If you already have an instance of your model, you can start a transaction and acquire the lock in one go using the following code:
item = Item.first item.with_lock do # This block is called within a transaction, # item is already locked. item.increment!(:views) end
12 Joining Tables
Active Record provides two finder methods for specifying JOIN clauses on the
resulting SQL: joins and left_outer_joins.
While joins should be used for INNER JOIN or custom queries,
left_outer_joins is used for queries using LEFT OUTER JOIN.
12.1 joins
There are multiple ways to use the joins method.
12.1.1 Using a String SQL Fragment
You can just supply the raw SQL specifying the JOIN clause to joins:
Author.joins("INNER JOIN posts ON posts.author_id = authors.id AND posts.published = 't'")
This will result in the following SQL:
SELECT authors.* FROM authors INNER JOIN posts ON posts.author_id = authors.id AND posts.published = 't'
12.1.2 Using Array/Hash of Named Associations
Active Record lets you use the names of the associations defined on the model as a shortcut for specifying JOIN clauses for those associations when using the joins method.
For example, consider the following Category, Article, Comment, Guest and Tag models:
class Category < ApplicationRecord has_many :articles end class Article < ApplicationRecord belongs_to :category has_many :comments has_many :tags end class Comment < ApplicationRecord belongs_to :article has_one :guest end class Guest < ApplicationRecord belongs_to :comment end class Tag < ApplicationRecord belongs_to :article end
Now all of the following will produce the expected join queries using INNER JOIN:
12.1.2.1 Joining a Single Association
Category.joins(:articles)
This produces:
SELECT categories.* FROM categories INNER JOIN articles ON articles.category_id = categories.id
Or, in English: "return a Category object for all categories with articles". Note that you will see duplicate categories if more than one article has the same category. If you want unique categories, you can use Category.joins(:articles).distinct.
12.1.3 Joining Multiple Associations
Article.joins(:category, :comments)
This produces:
SELECT articles.* FROM articles INNER JOIN categories ON categories.id = articles.category_id INNER JOIN comments ON comments.article_id = articles.id
Or, in English: "return all articles that have a category and at least one comment". Note again that articles with multiple comments will show up multiple times.
12.1.3.1 Joining Nested Associations (Single Level)
Article.joins(comments: :guest)
This produces:
SELECT articles.* FROM articles INNER JOIN comments ON comments.article_id = articles.id INNER JOIN guests ON guests.comment_id = comments.id
Or, in English: "return all articles that have a comment made by a guest."
12.1.3.2 Joining Nested Associations (Multiple Level)
Category.joins(articles: [{ comments: :guest }, :tags])
This produces:
SELECT categories.* FROM categories INNER JOIN articles ON articles.category_id = categories.id INNER JOIN comments ON comments.article_id = articles.id INNER JOIN guests ON guests.comment_id = comments.id INNER JOIN tags ON tags.article_id = articles.id
Or, in English: "return all categories that have articles, where those articles have a comment made by a guest, and where those articles also have a tag."
12.1.4 Specifying Conditions on the Joined Tables
You can specify conditions on the joined tables using the regular Array and String conditions. Hash conditions provide a special syntax for specifying conditions for the joined tables:
time_range = (Time.now.midnight - 1.day)..Time.now.midnight
Client.joins(:orders).where('orders.created_at' => time_range)
An alternative and cleaner syntax is to nest the hash conditions:
time_range = (Time.now.midnight - 1.day)..Time.now.midnight
Client.joins(:orders).where(orders: { created_at: time_range })
This will find all clients who have orders that were created yesterday, again using a BETWEEN SQL expression.
12.2 left_outer_joins
If you want to select a set of records whether or not they have associated
records you can use the left_outer_joins method.
Author.left_outer_joins(:posts).distinct.select('authors.*, COUNT(posts.*) AS posts_count').group('authors.id')
Which produces:
SELECT DISTINCT authors.*, COUNT(posts.*) AS posts_count FROM "authors" LEFT OUTER JOIN posts ON posts.author_id = authors.id GROUP BY authors.id
Which means: "return all authors with their count of posts, whether or not they have any posts at all"
13 Eager Loading Associations
Eager loading is the mechanism for loading the associated records of the objects returned by Model.find using as few queries as possible.
N + 1 queries problem
Consider the following code, which finds 10 clients and prints their postcodes:
clients = Client.limit(10) clients.each do |client| puts client.address.postcode end
This code looks fine at the first sight. But the problem lies within the total number of queries executed. The above code executes 1 (to find 10 clients) + 10 (one per each client to load the address) = 11 queries in total.
Solution to N + 1 queries problem
Active Record lets you specify in advance all the associations that are going to be loaded. This is possible by specifying the includes method of the Model.find call. With includes, Active Record ensures that all of the specified associations are loaded using the minimum possible number of queries.
Revisiting the above case, we could rewrite Client.limit(10) to eager load addresses:
clients = Client.includes(:address).limit(10) clients.each do |client| puts client.address.postcode end
The above code will execute just 2 queries, as opposed to 11 queries in the previous case:
SELECT * FROM clients LIMIT 10 SELECT addresses.* FROM addresses WHERE (addresses.client_id IN (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10))
13.1 Eager Loading Multiple Associations
Active Record lets you eager load any number of associations with a single Model.find call by using an array, hash, or a nested hash of array/hash with the includes method.
13.1.1 Array of Multiple Associations
Article.includes(:category, :comments)
This loads all the articles and the associated category and comments for each article.
13.1.2 Nested Associations Hash
Category.includes(articles: [{ comments: :guest }, :tags]).find(1)
This will find the category with id 1 and eager load all of the associated articles, the associated articles' tags and comments, and every comment's guest association.
13.2 Specifying Conditions on Eager Loaded Associations
Even though Active Record lets you specify conditions on the eager loaded associations just like joins, the recommended way is to use joins instead.
However if you must do this, you may use where as you would normally.
Article.includes(:comments).where(comments: { visible: true })
This would generate a query which contains a LEFT OUTER JOIN whereas the
joins method would generate one using the INNER JOIN function instead.
SELECT "articles"."id" AS t0_r0, ... "comments"."updated_at" AS t1_r5 FROM "articles" LEFT OUTER JOIN "comments" ON "comments"."article_id" = "articles"."id" WHERE (comments.visible = 1)
If there was no where condition, this would generate the normal set of two queries.
Using where like this will only work when you pass it a Hash. For
SQL-fragments you need to use references to force joined tables:
Article.includes(:comments).where("comments.visible = true").references(:comments)
If, in the case of this includes query, there were no comments for any
articles, all the articles would still be loaded. By using joins (an INNER
JOIN), the join conditions must match, otherwise no records will be
returned.
If an association is eager loaded as part of a join, any fields from a custom select clause will not present be on the loaded models. This is because it is ambiguous whether they should appear on the parent record, or the child.
14 Scopes
Scoping allows you to specify commonly-used queries which can be referenced as method calls on the association objects or models. With these scopes, you can use every method previously covered such as where, joins and includes. All scope methods will return an ActiveRecord::Relation object which will allow for further methods (such as other scopes) to be called on it.
To define a simple scope, we use the scope method inside the class, passing the query that we'd like to run when this scope is called:
class Article < ApplicationRecord
scope :published, -> { where(published: true) }
end
This is exactly the same as defining a class method, and which you use is a matter of personal preference:
class Article < ApplicationRecord
def self.published
where(published: true)
end
end
Scopes are also chainable within scopes:
class Article < ApplicationRecord
scope :published, -> { where(published: true) }
scope :published_and_commented, -> { published.where("comments_count > 0") }
end
To call this published scope we can call it on either the class:
Article.published # => [published articles]
Or on an association consisting of Article objects:
category = Category.first category.articles.published # => [published articles belonging to this category]
14.1 Passing in arguments
Your scope can take arguments:
class Article < ApplicationRecord
scope :created_before, ->(time) { where("created_at < ?", time) }
end
Call the scope as if it were a class method:
Article.created_before(Time.zone.now)
However, this is just duplicating the functionality that would be provided to you by a class method.
class Article < ApplicationRecord
def self.created_before(time)
where("created_at < ?", time)
end
end
Using a class method is the preferred way to accept arguments for scopes. These methods will still be accessible on the association objects:
category.articles.created_before(time)
14.2 Using conditionals
Your scope can utilize conditionals:
class Article < ApplicationRecord
scope :created_before, ->(time) { where("created_at < ?", time) if time.present? }
end
Like the other examples, this will behave similarly to a class method.
class Article < ApplicationRecord
def self.created_before(time)
where("created_at < ?", time) if time.present?
end
end
However, there is one important caveat: A scope will always return an ActiveRecord::Relation object, even if the conditional evaluates to false, whereas a class method, will return nil. This can cause NoMethodError when chaining class methods with conditionals, if any of the conditionals return false.
14.3 Applying a default scope
If we wish for a scope to be applied across all queries to the model we can use the
default_scope method within the model itself.
class Client < ApplicationRecord
default_scope { where("removed_at IS NULL") }
end
When queries are executed on this model, the SQL query will now look something like this:
SELECT * FROM clients WHERE removed_at IS NULL
If you need to do more complex things with a default scope, you can alternatively define it as a class method:
class Client < ApplicationRecord
def self.default_scope
# Should return an ActiveRecord::Relation.
end
end
The default_scope is also applied while creating/building a record
when the scope arguments are given as a Hash. It is not applied while
updating a record. E.g.:
class Client < ApplicationRecord
default_scope { where(active: true) }
end
Client.new # => #<Client id: nil, active: true>
Client.unscoped.new # => #<Client id: nil, active: nil>
Be aware that, when given in the Array format, default_scope query arguments
cannot be converted to a Hash for default attribute assignment. E.g.:
class Client < ApplicationRecord
default_scope { where("active = ?", true) }
end
Client.new # => #<Client id: nil, active: nil>
14.4 Merging of scopes
Just like where clauses scopes are merged using AND conditions.
class User < ApplicationRecord
scope :active, -> { where state: 'active' }
scope :inactive, -> { where state: 'inactive' }
end
User.active.inactive
# SELECT "users".* FROM "users" WHERE "users"."state" = 'active' AND "users"."state" = 'inactive'
We can mix and match scope and where conditions and the final sql
will have all conditions joined with AND.
User.active.where(state: 'finished') # SELECT "users".* FROM "users" WHERE "users"."state" = 'active' AND "users"."state" = 'finished'
If we do want the last where clause to win then Relation#merge can
be used.
User.active.merge(User.inactive) # SELECT "users".* FROM "users" WHERE "users"."state" = 'inactive'
One important caveat is that default_scope will be prepended in
scope and where conditions.
class User < ApplicationRecord
default_scope { where state: 'pending' }
scope :active, -> { where state: 'active' }
scope :inactive, -> { where state: 'inactive' }
end
User.all
# SELECT "users".* FROM "users" WHERE "users"."state" = 'pending'
User.active
# SELECT "users".* FROM "users" WHERE "users"."state" = 'pending' AND "users"."state" = 'active'
User.where(state: 'inactive')
# SELECT "users".* FROM "users" WHERE "users"."state" = 'pending' AND "users"."state" = 'inactive'
As you can see above the default_scope is being merged in both
scope and where conditions.
14.5 Removing All Scoping
If we wish to remove scoping for any reason we can use the unscoped method. This is
especially useful if a default_scope is specified in the model and should not be
applied for this particular query.
Client.unscoped.load
This method removes all scoping and will do a normal query on the table.
Client.unscoped.all # SELECT "clients".* FROM "clients" Client.where(published: false).unscoped.all # SELECT "clients".* FROM "clients"
unscoped can also accept a block.
Client.unscoped {
Client.created_before(Time.zone.now)
}
15 Dynamic Finders
For every field (also known as an attribute) you define in your table, Active Record provides a finder method. If you have a field called first_name on your Client model for example, you get find_by_first_name for free from Active Record. If you have a locked field on the Client model, you also get find_by_locked method.
You can specify an exclamation point (!) on the end of the dynamic finders to get them to raise an ActiveRecord::RecordNotFound error if they do not return any records, like Client.find_by_name!("Ryan")
If you want to find both by name and locked, you can chain these finders together by simply typing "and" between the fields. For example, Client.find_by_first_name_and_locked("Ryan", true).
16 Enums
The enum macro maps an integer column to a set of possible values.
class Book < ApplicationRecord enum availability: [:available, :unavailable] end
This will automatically create the corresponding scopes to query the model. Methods to transition between states and query the current state are also added.
# Both examples below query just available books. Book.available # or Book.where(availability: :available) book = Book.new(availability: :available) book.available? # => true book.unavailable! # => true book.available? # => false
Read the full documentation about enums in the Rails API docs.
17 Understanding The Method Chaining
The Active Record pattern implements Method Chaining, which allow us to use multiple Active Record methods together in a simple and straightforward way.
You can chain methods in a statement when the previous method called returns an
ActiveRecord::Relation, like all, where, and joins. Methods that return
a single object (see Retrieving a Single Object Section)
have to be at the end of the statement.
There are some examples below. This guide won't cover all the possibilities, just a few as examples. When an Active Record method is called, the query is not immediately generated and sent to the database, this just happens when the data is actually needed. So each example below generates a single query.
17.1 Retrieving filtered data from multiple tables
Person
.select('people.id, people.name, comments.text')
.joins(:comments)
.where('comments.created_at > ?', 1.week.ago)
The result should be something like this:
SELECT people.id, people.name, comments.text FROM people INNER JOIN comments ON comments.person_id = people.id WHERE comments.created_at > '2015-01-01'
17.2 Retrieving specific data from multiple tables
Person
.select('people.id, people.name, companies.name')
.joins(:company)
.find_by('people.name' => 'John') # this should be the last
The above should generate:
SELECT people.id, people.name, companies.name FROM people INNER JOIN companies ON companies.person_id = people.id WHERE people.name = 'John' LIMIT 1
Note that if a query matches multiple records, find_by will
fetch only the first one and ignore the others (see the LIMIT 1
statement above).
18 Find or Build a New Object
It's common that you need to find a record or create it if it doesn't exist. You can do that with the find_or_create_by and find_or_create_by! methods.
18.1 find_or_create_by
The find_or_create_by method checks whether a record with the specified attributes exists. If it doesn't, then create is called. Let's see an example.
Suppose you want to find a client named 'Andy', and if there's none, create one. You can do so by running:
Client.find_or_create_by(first_name: 'Andy') # => #<Client id: 1, first_name: "Andy", orders_count: 0, locked: true, created_at: "2011-08-30 06:09:27", updated_at: "2011-08-30 06:09:27">
The SQL generated by this method looks like this:
SELECT * FROM clients WHERE (clients.first_name = 'Andy') LIMIT 1
BEGIN
INSERT INTO clients (created_at, first_name, locked, orders_count, updated_at) VALUES ('2011-08-30 05:22:57', 'Andy', 1, NULL, '2011-08-30 05:22:57')
COMMIT
find_or_create_by returns either the record that already exists or the new record. In our case, we didn't already have a client named Andy so the record is created and returned.
The new record might not be saved to the database; that depends on whether validations passed or not (just like create).
Suppose we want to set the 'locked' attribute to false if we're
creating a new record, but we don't want to include it in the query. So
we want to find the client named "Andy", or if that client doesn't
exist, create a client named "Andy" which is not locked.
We can achieve this in two ways. The first is to use create_with:
Client.create_with(locked: false).find_or_create_by(first_name: 'Andy')
The second way is using a block:
Client.find_or_create_by(first_name: 'Andy') do |c| c.locked = false end
The block will only be executed if the client is being created. The second time we run this code, the block will be ignored.
18.2 find_or_create_by!
You can also use find_or_create_by! to raise an exception if the new record is invalid. Validations are not covered on this guide, but let's assume for a moment that you temporarily add
validates :orders_count, presence: true
to your Client model. If you try to create a new Client without passing an orders_count, the record will be invalid and an exception will be raised:
Client.find_or_create_by!(first_name: 'Andy') # => ActiveRecord::RecordInvalid: Validation failed: Orders count can't be blank
18.3 find_or_initialize_by
The find_or_initialize_by method will work just like
find_or_create_by but it will call new instead of create. This
means that a new model instance will be created in memory but won't be
saved to the database. Continuing with the find_or_create_by example, we
now want the client named 'Nick':
nick = Client.find_or_initialize_by(first_name: 'Nick') # => #<Client id: nil, first_name: "Nick", orders_count: 0, locked: true, created_at: "2011-08-30 06:09:27", updated_at: "2011-08-30 06:09:27"> nick.persisted? # => false nick.new_record? # => true
Because the object is not yet stored in the database, the SQL generated looks like this:
SELECT * FROM clients WHERE (clients.first_name = 'Nick') LIMIT 1
When you want to save it to the database, just call save:
nick.save # => true
19 Finding by SQL
If you'd like to use your own SQL to find records in a table you can use find_by_sql. The find_by_sql method will return an array of objects even if the underlying query returns just a single record. For example you could run this query:
Client.find_by_sql("SELECT * FROM clients
INNER JOIN orders ON clients.id = orders.client_id
ORDER BY clients.created_at desc")
# => [
# #<Client id: 1, first_name: "Lucas" >,
# #<Client id: 2, first_name: "Jan" >,
# ...
# ]
find_by_sql provides you with a simple way of making custom calls to the database and retrieving instantiated objects.
19.1 select_all
find_by_sql has a close relative called connection#select_all. select_all will retrieve objects from the database using custom SQL just like find_by_sql but will not instantiate them. This method will return an instance of ActiveRecord::Result class and calling to_hash on this object would return you an array of hashes where each hash indicates a record.
Client.connection.select_all("SELECT first_name, created_at FROM clients WHERE id = '1'").to_hash
# => [
# {"first_name"=>"Rafael", "created_at"=>"2012-11-10 23:23:45.281189"},
# {"first_name"=>"Eileen", "created_at"=>"2013-12-09 11:22:35.221282"}
# ]
19.2 pluck
pluck can be used to query single or multiple columns from the underlying table of a model. It accepts a list of column names as argument and returns an array of values of the specified columns with the corresponding data type.
Client.where(active: true).pluck(:id) # SELECT id FROM clients WHERE active = 1 # => [1, 2, 3] Client.distinct.pluck(:role) # SELECT DISTINCT role FROM clients # => ['admin', 'member', 'guest'] Client.pluck(:id, :name) # SELECT clients.id, clients.name FROM clients # => [[1, 'David'], [2, 'Jeremy'], [3, 'Jose']]
pluck makes it possible to replace code like:
Client.select(:id).map { |c| c.id }
# or
Client.select(:id).map(&:id)
# or
Client.select(:id, :name).map { |c| [c.id, c.name] }
with:
Client.pluck(:id) # or Client.pluck(:id, :name)
Unlike select, pluck directly converts a database result into a Ruby Array,
without constructing ActiveRecord objects. This can mean better performance for
a large or often-running query. However, any model method overrides will
not be available. For example:
class Client < ApplicationRecord
def name
"I am #{super}"
end
end
Client.select(:name).map &:name
# => ["I am David", "I am Jeremy", "I am Jose"]
Client.pluck(:name)
# => ["David", "Jeremy", "Jose"]
Furthermore, unlike select and other Relation scopes, pluck triggers an immediate
query, and thus cannot be chained with any further scopes, although it can work with
scopes already constructed earlier:
Client.pluck(:name).limit(1) # => NoMethodError: undefined method `limit' for #<Array:0x007ff34d3ad6d8> Client.limit(1).pluck(:name) # => ["David"]
19.3 ids
ids can be used to pluck all the IDs for the relation using the table's primary key.
Person.ids # SELECT id FROM people
class Person < ApplicationRecord self.primary_key = "person_id" end Person.ids # SELECT person_id FROM people
20 Existence of Objects
If you simply want to check for the existence of the object there's a method called exists?.
This method will query the database using the same query as find, but instead of returning an
object or collection of objects it will return either true or false.
Client.exists?(1)
The exists? method also takes multiple values, but the catch is that it will return true if any
one of those records exists.
Client.exists?(id: [1,2,3]) # or Client.exists?(name: ['John', 'Sergei'])
It's even possible to use exists? without any arguments on a model or a relation.
Client.where(first_name: 'Ryan').exists?
The above returns true if there is at least one client with the first_name 'Ryan' and false
otherwise.
Client.exists?
The above returns false if the clients table is empty and true otherwise.
You can also use any? and many? to check for existence on a model or relation.
# via a model Article.any? Article.many? # via a named scope Article.recent.any? Article.recent.many? # via a relation Article.where(published: true).any? Article.where(published: true).many? # via an association Article.first.categories.any? Article.first.categories.many?
21 Calculations
This section uses count as an example method in this preamble, but the options described apply to all sub-sections.
All calculation methods work directly on a model:
Client.count # SELECT COUNT(*) FROM clients
Or on a relation:
Client.where(first_name: 'Ryan').count # SELECT COUNT(*) FROM clients WHERE (first_name = 'Ryan')
You can also use various finder methods on a relation for performing complex calculations:
Client.includes("orders").where(first_name: 'Ryan', orders: { status: 'received' }).count
Which will execute:
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT clients.id) FROM clients LEFT OUTER JOIN orders ON orders.client_id = clients.id WHERE (clients.first_name = 'Ryan' AND orders.status = 'received')
21.1 Count
If you want to see how many records are in your model's table you could call Client.count and that will return the number. If you want to be more specific and find all the clients with their age present in the database you can use Client.count(:age).
For options, please see the parent section, Calculations.
21.2 Average
If you want to see the average of a certain number in one of your tables you can call the average method on the class that relates to the table. This method call will look something like this:
Client.average("orders_count")
This will return a number (possibly a floating point number such as 3.14159265) representing the average value in the field.
For options, please see the parent section, Calculations.
21.3 Minimum
If you want to find the minimum value of a field in your table you can call the minimum method on the class that relates to the table. This method call will look something like this:
Client.minimum("age")
For options, please see the parent section, Calculations.
21.4 Maximum
If you want to find the maximum value of a field in your table you can call the maximum method on the class that relates to the table. This method call will look something like this:
Client.maximum("age")
For options, please see the parent section, Calculations.
21.5 Sum
If you want to find the sum of a field for all records in your table you can call the sum method on the class that relates to the table. This method call will look something like this:
Client.sum("orders_count")
For options, please see the parent section, Calculations.
22 Running EXPLAIN
You can run EXPLAIN on the queries triggered by relations. For example,
User.where(id: 1).joins(:articles).explain
may yield
EXPLAIN for: SELECT `users`.* FROM `users` INNER JOIN `articles` ON `articles`.`user_id` = `users`.`id` WHERE `users`.`id` = 1 +----+-------------+----------+-------+---------------+ | id | select_type | table | type | possible_keys | +----+-------------+----------+-------+---------------+ | 1 | SIMPLE | users | const | PRIMARY | | 1 | SIMPLE | articles | ALL | NULL | +----+-------------+----------+-------+---------------+ +---------+---------+-------+------+-------------+ | key | key_len | ref | rows | Extra | +---------+---------+-------+------+-------------+ | PRIMARY | 4 | const | 1 | | | NULL | NULL | NULL | 1 | Using where | +---------+---------+-------+------+-------------+ 2 rows in set (0.00 sec)
under MySQL and MariaDB.
Active Record performs a pretty printing that emulates that of the corresponding database shell. So, the same query running with the PostgreSQL adapter would yield instead
EXPLAIN for: SELECT "users".* FROM "users" INNER JOIN "articles" ON "articles"."user_id" = "users"."id" WHERE "users"."id" = 1
QUERY PLAN
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Nested Loop Left Join (cost=0.00..37.24 rows=8 width=0)
Join Filter: (articles.user_id = users.id)
-> Index Scan using users_pkey on users (cost=0.00..8.27 rows=1 width=4)
Index Cond: (id = 1)
-> Seq Scan on articles (cost=0.00..28.88 rows=8 width=4)
Filter: (articles.user_id = 1)
(6 rows)
Eager loading may trigger more than one query under the hood, and some queries
may need the results of previous ones. Because of that, explain actually
executes the query, and then asks for the query plans. For example,
User.where(id: 1).includes(:articles).explain
yields
EXPLAIN for: SELECT `users`.* FROM `users` WHERE `users`.`id` = 1 +----+-------------+-------+-------+---------------+ | id | select_type | table | type | possible_keys | +----+-------------+-------+-------+---------------+ | 1 | SIMPLE | users | const | PRIMARY | +----+-------------+-------+-------+---------------+ +---------+---------+-------+------+-------+ | key | key_len | ref | rows | Extra | +---------+---------+-------+------+-------+ | PRIMARY | 4 | const | 1 | | +---------+---------+-------+------+-------+ 1 row in set (0.00 sec) EXPLAIN for: SELECT `articles`.* FROM `articles` WHERE `articles`.`user_id` IN (1) +----+-------------+----------+------+---------------+ | id | select_type | table | type | possible_keys | +----+-------------+----------+------+---------------+ | 1 | SIMPLE | articles | ALL | NULL | +----+-------------+----------+------+---------------+ +------+---------+------+------+-------------+ | key | key_len | ref | rows | Extra | +------+---------+------+------+-------------+ | NULL | NULL | NULL | 1 | Using where | +------+---------+------+------+-------------+ 1 row in set (0.00 sec)
under MySQL and MariaDB.
22.1 Interpreting EXPLAIN
Interpretation of the output of EXPLAIN is beyond the scope of this guide. The following pointers may be helpful:
SQLite3: EXPLAIN QUERY PLAN
MySQL: EXPLAIN Output Format
MariaDB: EXPLAIN
PostgreSQL: Using EXPLAIN
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